The results of this between-subjects investigation indicated that, while putting for 4 min, experts produced more frontal theta (4.75–6.75 Hz) and parietal high-alpha (9.75–12.5 Hz) power than novices. First, Baumeister, Reinecke, Liesen, and Weiss (2008) compared the EEG activity of expert and novice golfers. Research investigating patterns of EEG activity preceding putts is scarcer than the studies of heart rate, but two recent EEG studies are noteworthy. Accordingly, the relationship between preparatory heart rate and performance warrants further scrutiny. However, Konttinen, Lyytinen, and Viitasalo (1998) found that preparatory heart rate decelerations had no effect on the shot outcomes of elite and experienced rifle shooters. For instance, Tremayne and Barry (2001) found a marginally significant linear trend, which indicated a steeper decline in the heart rate of expert pistol shooters in the 5 s preceding shots that hit the bulls-eye, when compared to shots that missed. This hypothesis has been examined by a handful of studies outside of golf, but the evidence associating heart rate deceleration with accuracy is mixed. Such a difference would be expected to emerge (i.e., greater deceleration preceding holed putts) if preparatory heart rate deceleration is related to performance accuracy.

However, in light of the aforementioned findings, it is surprising to note that research has yet to examine any differences in the magnitude of heart rate deceleration preceding holed versus missed putts. Accordingly, the greater magnitude of heart rate deceleration in experts in the moments preceding golf putts is thought to indicate that experts engage in more preparatory external information processing than novices ( Neumann & Thomas, 2009). It contends that decelerations in heart rate facilitate external processing by reducing blood pressure and thereby unloading the baroreceptors to increase the flow of environmental information to the brain ( Brunia, 1993). These findings have been interpreted through Lacey and Lacey's sensory intake-rejection hypothesis (e.g., Lacey & Lacey, 1970, 1974, 1980). Similarly, Neumann and Thomas (2009) found that elite, experienced, and novice golfers reduced their heart rate by 12, 10, and 2 bpm, respectively, during the 6 s preceding 8-foot putts. For instance, Boutcher and Zinsser (1990) found that, from a premovement baseline, expert and novice golfers reduced their heart rate by 20 beats per minute (bpm), and 15 bpm, respectively, during the four interbeat intervals preceding 12-foot putts. Specifically, research has shown that golf putts are preceded by a deceleration in heart rate, which is greater in experts than novices. One of the most consistent findings of previous preparation for action research comes from studies of golf putting. Preparation for Action: Overview of Previous Research The goal of this experiment was to extend previous research via pathways described in the following sections, and thereby provide new insight into the psychophysiology of optimal motor performance. Previous research has also assumed that for a movement-related psychophysiological response to characterize successful motor performance, it should distinguish experts from novices and successful from unsuccessful performance outcomes (e.g., Cooke, 2013 Hatfield, Haufler, Hung, & Spalding, 2004). To provide insight into psychophysiological responses associated with successful motor performance, researchers have typically analyzed measures of cardiac or electroencephalographic (EEG) activity during the final seconds preceding movements, with these measures being interpreted to reflect preparatory information processing and motor response programming (e.g., Lacey & Lacey, 1974 Pfurtscheller & Aranibar, 1979).

For instance, such knowledge could inform customized biofeedback training to expedite skill acquisition, and increase the likelihood of successful performance outcomes in any domain where steep learning curves and accurate motor performance are critical (e.g., medicine, armed forces, sport). Identifying the movement-related psychophysiological response patterns that characterize successful motor performance could yield important benefits for society.

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